Student English Text

6 1 A SHORT HISTORY OF WESTERN PAINTING Art is influenced by the customs and faith of a people. Styles in Western art have changed many times. As there are so many different styles of Western art, it would be impossible to describe all of them in such a short text. Consequently, this text will describe only the most important ones, starting from the sixth century AD. The Middle Ages (5th to the 15th century AD) During the Middle Ages, the main aim of painters was to represent religious themes. A conventional artist of this period was not interested in showing nature and people as they really were.A typical picture at this time was full of religious symbols, which created feeling of respect and love for God. But it was evident that ideas were changing in the 13th century when painters like Giotto di Bondone began to paint religious scenes in a more realistic way. The Renaissance (15th to 16th century) During the Renaissance, new ideas and values graduallv replaced those held in the M iddle Ages. People began to concentrate less on religious themes and adopt a more humanistic attitude to life. At the same time painters returned to classical Roman and Greek ideas about art. They tried to paint people and nature as they really were.Rich people wanted to possess their own paintings, so they could decorate their superb palaces and great houses. They paid famous artists to paint pictures of themselves, their houses and possessions as well as their activities and achievements. One of the most important discoveries during this period was how to draw things in perspective. This technique was first used by Masaccio in 1428. When people first saw his paintings, they were convinced that they were looking through a hole in a wall at a real scene. If the roles of perspective had not been discovered, no one would have been able to paint such realistic pictures.By coincidence, oil paints were also developed at this time, which made the colours used in paintings look richer and deeper. Without the new paints and the new technique, we would not be able to see the many great masterpieces for which this period is famous. Impressionism (late 19th to early 20th century) In the late 19th century, Europe changed a great deal. from a mostly agricultural society to a mostly industrial one. Many people moved from the countryside to the new cities. There were many new inventions and social changes. Naturally, these changes also led to new painting styles.Among the painters who broke away from the traditional style of painting were the Impressionists, who lived and worked in Paris. The Impressionists were the first painters to work outdoors. They were eager to show how light and shadow fell on objects at different times of day. However, because natural light changes so quickly, the Impressionists had to paint quickly. Their paintings were not as detailed as those of earlier painters. At first, many people disliked this style of painting and became very angr about it. They said that the painters were careless and their paintings were ridiculous. Modern Art (20th century to today)At the time they were created, the Impressionist paintings were controversial, but today they are accepted as the beginning of what we call â€Å"modem art†. This is because the Impressionists encouraged artists to look at their environment in new ways. There are scores of modern art styles, but without the Impressionists, many of these painting styles might not exist. On the one hand, some modem art is abstract; that is, the painter does not attempt to paint objects as we see them with our eyes, but instead concentrates on certain qualities of the object, using colour, line and shape to represent them.On the other hand, some paintings of modern art are so realistic that they look like photographs. These styles are so different. Who can predict what painting styles there will be in the future? Unit 3 A healthy life-Reading ADVICE FROM GRANDAD Dear James, It is a be autiful day here and I am sitting under the big tree at the end of the garden. I have just returned from a long bike ride to an old castle. It seems amazing that at my age I am still fit enough to cycle 20 kilometres in an afternoon. It's my birthday in two weeks time and I'll be 82 years old!I think my long and active life must be due to the healthy life I live. This brings me to the real reason for my letter, my dear grandson. Your mother tells me that you started smoking some time ago and now you are finding it difficult to give it up. Believe me, I know how easy it is to begin smoking and how tough it is to stop. You see, during adolescence I also smoked and became addicted to cigarettes. By the way, did you know that this is because you become addicted in three different ways? First, you can become physically addicted to nicotine, which is one of the hundreds of chemicals in cigarettes.This means that after a while your body becomes accustomed to having nicotine in it. So when the drug leaves your body, you get withdrawal symptoms. I remember feeling bad-tempered and sometimes even in pain. Secondly, you become addicted through habit. As you know, if you do the same thing over and over again, you begin to do it automatically. Lastly, you can become mentally addicted. I believed I was happier and more relaxed after having a cigarette, so I began to think that I could only feel good when I smoked. I was addicted in all three ways, so it was very difficult to quit.But I did finally manage. When I was young, I didn't know much about the harmful effects of smoking. I didn't know, for example, that it could do terrible damage to your heart and lungs or that it was more difficult for smoking couples to become pregnant. I certainly didn't know their babies may have a smaller birth weight or even be abnormal in some way. Neither did I know that my cigarette smoke could affect the health of non-smokers. However, what I did know was that my girlfriend thought I smel t terrible. She said my breath and clothes smelt, and that the ends of my fingers were turning yellow.She told me that she wouldn't go out with me again unless I stopped! I also noticed that I became breathless quickly, and that I wasn't enjoying sport as much. When I was taken off the school football team because I was unfit, I knew it was time to quit smoking. I am sending you some advice I found on the Internet. It might help you to stop and strengthen your resolve. I do hope so because I want you to live as long and healthy a life as I have. Love from Grandad Unit 5 The power of nature-Reading AN EXCITING JOB I have the greatest job in the world.I travel to unusual places and work alongside people from all over the world. Sometimes working outdoors, sometimes in an office, sometimes using scientific equipment and sometimes meeting local people and tourists, I am never bored. Although my job is occasionally dangerous, I don't mind because danger excites me and makes me feel alive . However, the most important thing about my job is that I help protect ordinary people from one of the most powerful forces on earth – the volcano. I was appointed as a volcanologist working for the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) twenty years ago.My job is collecting information for a database about Mount Kilauea, which is one of the most active volcanoes in Hawaii. Having collected and evaluated the information, I help other scientists to predict where lava from the volcano will flow next and how fast. Our work has saved many lives because people in the path of the lava can be warned to leave their houses. Unfortunately, we cannot move their homes out of the way, and many houses have been covered with lava or burned to the ground. When boiling rock erupts from a volcano and crashes back to earth, it causes less damage than you might imagine.This is because no one lives near the top of Mount Kilauea, where the rocks fall. The lava that flows slowly like a wave down the m ountain causes far more damage because it buries everything in its path under the molten rock. However, the eruption itself is really exciting to watch and I shall never forget my first sight of one. It was in the second week after I arrived in Hawaii. Having worked hard all day, I went to bed early. I was fast asleep when suddenly my bed began shaking and I heard a strange sound, like a railway train passing my window. Having experienced quite a few earthquakes in Hawaii already, I didn't take much notice.I was about to go back to sleep when suddenly my bedroom became as bright as day. I ran out of the house into the back garden where I could see Mount Kilauea in the distance. There had been an eruption from the side of the mountain and red hot lava was fountaining hundreds of metres into the air. It was an absolutely fantastic sight. The day after this eruption I was lucky enough to have a much closer look at it. Two other scientists and I were driven up the mountain and dropped a s close as possible to the crater that had been formed during the eruption.Having earlier collected special clothes from the observatory, we put them on before we went any closer. All three of us looked like spacemen. We had white protective suits that covered our whole body, helmets, big boots and special gloves. It was not easy to walk in these suits, but we slowly made our way to the edge of the crater and looked down into the red, boiling centre. The other two climbed down into the crater to collect some lava for later study, but this being my first experience, I stayed at the top and watched them. Today, I am just as enthusiastic about my job as the day I first started.Having studied volcanoes now for many years, I am still amazed at their beauty as well as their potential to cause great damage. THE BEST OF MANHATTAN’S ART GALLERIES The Frick Collection (5th Avenue and E. 70th Street) Many art lovers would rather visit this small art gallery than any other in New York. H enry Clay Frick, a rich New Yorker, died in 1919, leaving his house, furniture and art collection to the American people. Frick had a preference for pre-twentieth century Western paintings, and these are well-represented in this excellent collection.You can also explore Frick's beautiful home and garden which are well worth a Visit. Guggenheim Museum(5th Avenue and 88th Street) This museum owns 5,000 superb modern paintings, sculptures and drawings. These art works are not all displayed at the same time. The exhibition is always changing. It will appeal to those who love Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings. The Guggenheim Museum building is also world-famous. When you walk into gallery, you feel as if you were inside a fragile, white seashell. The best way to see the paintings is to start from the top floor and walk down to the bottom.There are no stairs just a circular path. The museum also has an excellent restaurant. Metropolitan Museum of Art (5th Avenue and 82nd Stre et) The reputation of this museum lies in the variety of its art collection. This covers more than 5,000 years of civilization from many parts of the world, including America, Europe, China, Egypt, other African countries and South America. The museum displays more than just the visual delights of art. It introduces you to ancient ways of living. You can visit an Egyptian temple, a fragrant Ming garden, a typical room in an 18th century French house and many other special exhibitions.Museum of Modern Art (53rd Street, between 5th and 6th Avenues) It is amazing that so many great works of art from the late 19th century to the 21st century are housed in the same museum. The collection of Western art includes paintings by such famous artists as Monet, Van Gogh, Picasso and Matisse. A few words of warning: the admission price is not cheap and the museum is often very crowded. Whitney Museum of American Art (945 Madison Avenue, near 75th Street) The Whitney holds an excellent collection of contemporary American painting and sculpture.There are no permanent displays in this museum and exhibitions change all the time. Every two years, the Whitney holds a special exhibition of new art by living artists. The museum also shows videos and films by contemporary video artists. Suppose you were the president of a high school council and you received the letter below. It is from a group of students who would like to make their school more attractive. Read the letter and then use the outline on the next page to make notes for a report about the letter to the school council. Class 2A Seaforth High School Ramsay Rd Seaforth Mrs L Kroll President, Seaforth High School CouncilPO Box 235, Seaforth 12 May Dear Mrs Kroll, Lately our class has become worried about the environment at the back of the school, and we would like to do something to make it more attractive. We have done some research and have come up with a plan. With the help of our parents, we can do most of the work ours elves, but we will need a small amount of money for equipment, plants-and paint. I am writing to ask the council for permission to do this work and to ask if the school council could donate $500 towards our project. We would like to turn the empty land at the back of the school into a nature garden.We would plant trees and grasses, make paths through the garden and dig a small pond. We think this would provide a peaceful place for students and teachers to walk in. It would also attract birds, insects and small animals which students could then study in science classes. We would also like to paint the back wall of the school that faces the new garden. Some of our art classes could then paint a huge picture on it. It might be possible to paint over the wall each year so the next classes can make a new picture. Lastly, we would like to paint all the rubbish bins. At the moment they look old and the paint is coming off.If we paint them in bright, attractive colours, students might be mo re likely to use them. We think our plan would greatly improve the back of the school and everyone in the school would benefit. We have already asked our parents and they have promised to donate one weekend of their time to help us complete the project. We hope you will give us permission for this worthwhile project and will be able to donate the $500 we need. When we have finished the work, we hope the council will join us in a celebration morning tea so that the whole school can thank you. Yours sincerely, Jo Ryan (Class president)Reading and discussing Before you read the poster below, discuss what you know about HIV/AIDS with your classmates. Make a list of words that you might come across in this poster. HIV/AIDS:ARE YOU AT RISK? HIV is a virus. A virus is a very small living thing that causes disease. There are many different viruses, for example, the flu virus or the SARS virus. HIV weakens a person's immune system; that is, the part of the body that fights disease. You can h ave HIV in your blood for a long time, but eventually HIV will damage your immune system so much that you body can no longer fight disease.This stage of the illness is called AIDS. If you develop AIDS, your chances of survival are very small. HIV is spread through blood or the fluid that the body makes during sex. For a person to become infected, blood or sexual fluid that carries the virus, has to get inside the body through broken skin or by injection. One day scientists will find a cure for HIV/AIDS. Until that happens, you need to protect yourself. Here are some things you can do to make sure you stay safe. If you inject drugs: do not share your needle with anyone else. Blood from another person can stay on or in the needle.If a person has HIV and you use the same needle, you could inject the virus into your own blood. do not share anything else that a person has used while injecting drugs. Blood could have spilt on it. If you have sex with a male or a female: use a condom. This will prevent sexual fluid passing from one person to another. The following statements are NOT true. A person cannot get HIV the first time they have sex. WRONG. If one sexual partner has HIV, the other partner could become infected. You can tell by looking at someone whether or not they have HIV. WRONG. Many people carrying HIV look perfectly healthy.It is only when the disease has progressed to AIDS that a person begins to look sick. Only homosexuals get AIDS. WRONG. Anyone who has sex with a person infected with H1V/AIDS risks getting the virus. Women are slightly more likely to become infected than men. If you hug, touch or kiss someone with AIDS or visit them in their home, you will get HIV/AIDS. WRONG. You can only get the disease from blood or sexual fluid. Unfortunately, people with HIV sometimes lose their friends because of prejudice. Many people are afraid that they will get HIV/AIDS from those infected with HIV!AIDS. For the same reason, some AIDS patients cannot find a nyone to look after them when they are sick. You can get HIV/AIDS from mosquitoes. WRONG. There is no evidence of this. Before you read Tom's essay on environmental problems, glance at the title and pictures and predict the main idea of the essay. CLEAN UP YOUR BUTTS AND BAGS All sorts of items become litter, but two of the most common and most dangerous are cigarette butts and plastic bags. Litter is a big problem for our environment, but it is a problem that individuals can easily do something about.Not littering at all or cleaning up litter, such as cigarette butts and plastic bags, greatly improves the quality of our environment. Although cigarette butts are small, they are bad for the environment. Over 1,600 billion cigarettes are smoked each year in China and large quantities of the butts are thrown away. Worldwide, about 4. 5 trillion butts are littered every year. Apart from the fact that butts spoil the beauty of the environment, they contain some very toxic chemicals. Thes e find their way into the water supply where they decrease the quality of the water and endanger plants and animals that live there.Because there are so many butts and because they can take up to 5 years to break down, the toxic chemicals add up to a large amount. So, if people have to smoke, they should not throw away the butts but put them in the rubbish bin instead. Plastic bags are another common form of litter that is a danger to the environment. There are several reasons for this. They are made from oil and gas, which are non-renewable resources, ff they are not recycled, these resources are lost to us. In China, 2 billion plastic bags are used every day. An enormous number of these become litter.This is a huge problem because they last from 20 to 1,000 years in the environment. They float easily in air and water and travel long distances. They find their way to rivers, parks, beaches and oceans. Plastic bags kill up to one million seabirds, 100,000 sea mammals and countless f ish each year worldwide. When the animal dies and breaks down, the plastic bag can become free again to kill another animal. It is up to people not to let plastic bags become litter. It would be better if they used fewer and recycled them. Cleaning up your cigarette butts and plastic bags would improve the environment.The earth would be a better place because it would be less polluted. And we would know that we were doing something to look after our planet. However, I believe the best solution would be not to smoke or use plastic bags at all. THE EARTH IS BECOMING WARMER-BUT DOES IT MATTER? During the 20th century the temperature of the earth rose about one degree Fahrenheit. That probably does not seem much to you or me, but it is a rapid increase when compared to other natural changes. So how has this come about and does it matter? Earth Care’s Sophie Armstrong explores these questions.There is no doubt that the earth is becoming warmer (see Graph 1) and that it is human ac tivity that has caused this global warming rather than a random but natural phenomenon. All scientists subscribe to the view that the increase in the earth's temperature is due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil to produce energy. Some byproducts of this process are called â€Å"greenhouse† gases, the most important one of which is carbon dioxide. Dr Janice Foster explains: â€Å"There is a natural phenomenon that scientists call the ‘greenhouse effect'.This is when small amounts of gases in the atmosphere, like carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour, trap heat from the sun and therefore warm the earth. Without the ‘greenhouse effect', the earth would be about thirty-three degrees Celsius cooler than it is. So, we need those gases. The problem begins when we add huge quantities of extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. It means that more heat energy tends to be trapped in the atmosphere causing the global temperature to go up. â₠¬  We know that the levels of carbon dioxide have increased greatly over the last 100 to 150 years.It was a scientist called Charles Keeling, who made accurate measurements of the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 1957 to 1997. He found that between these years the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere went up from around 315 parts to around 370 parts per million (see Graph 2). All scientists accept this data. They also agree that it is the burning of more and more fossil fuels that has resulted in this increase in carbon dioxide. So how high will the temperature increase go? Dr Janice Foster says that over the next 100 years the amount of warming could be as low as 1 to 1. degrees Celsius, but it could be as high as 5 degrees. However, the attitude of scientists towards this rise is completely different. On the one hand, Dr Foster thinks that the trend which increases the temperature by 5 degrees would be a catastrophe. She says, â€Å"We can't predict the climate well e nough to know what to expect, but it could be very serious. † Others who agree with her think there may be a rise of several metres in the sea level, or predict severe storms, floods, droughts, famines, the spread of diseases and the disappearance of species.On the other hand, there are those, like George Hambley, who are opposed to this view, believe that we should not worry about high levels of carbon dioxide in the air. They predict that any warming will be mild with few bad environmental consequences. In fact, Hambley states, â€Å"More carbon dioxide is actually a positive thing. It will make plants grow quicker; crops will produce more; it will encourage a greater range of animals – all of which will make life for human beings better. † Greenhouse gases continue to build up in the atmosphere.Even if we start reducing the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, the climate is going to keep on warming for decades or centuries. No one knows the ef fects of global warming. Does that mean we should do nothing? Or, are the risks too great? WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT GLOBAL WARMING? Dear Earth Care, I am doing a project on behalf of my school about global warming. Sometimes I feel that individuals can have little effect on such huge environmental problems. However, 1 still think people should advocate improvements in the way we use energy today.As I'm not sure where to start with my project, I would appreciate any suggestions you may have. Thank you! Ouyang Guang Dear Ouyang Guang, There are many people who have a commitment like yours, but they do not believe they have the power to do anything to improve our environment. That is not true. Together, individuals can make a difference. We do not have to put up with pollution. The growth of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide in the air actually comes as a result of many things we do every day. Here are a few suggestions on how to reduce it. They should get you started with your project. W e use a lot of energy in our houses. It is OK to leave an electrical appliance on so long as you are using it – if not, turn it off! Do not be casual about this. So if you are not using the lights, the TV, the computer, and so on, turn them off. If you are cold, put on more clothes instead of turning up the heat. 2 Motor vehicles use a lot of energy- so walk or ride a bike if you can. 3 Recycle cans, bottles, plastic bags and newspapers if circumstances allow you to. It takes a lot of energy to make things from new materials, so, if you can, buy things made from recycled materials. Get your parents to buy things that are economical with energy – this includes cars as well as smaller things like fridges and microwaves. 5 Plant trees in your garden or your school yard, as they absorb carbon dioxide from the air and refresh your spirit when you look at them. 6 Finally and most importantly, be an educator. Talk with your family and friends about global warming and tell the m what you have learned. Remember – your contribution counts! Earth Care THE LRKE OF HERVEN Changbaishan is in Jilin Province, Northeast China. Much of this beautiful, mountainous area is thick forest .Changbaishan is China's largest nature reserve and it is kept in its natural state for the people of China and visitors from all over the world to enjoy. The height of the land varies from 700 metres above sea level to over 2,000 metres and is home to a great diversity of rare plants and animals. Among the rare animals are cranes, black bears, leopards and tigers. Many people come to Changbaishan to study its unique plants and animals. Others come to walk in the mountains, to see the spectacular waterfalls or to bathe in the hot water pools.However, the attraction that arouses the greatest appreciation in the reserve is Tianchi or the Lake of Heaven. Tianchi is a deep lake that has formed in the crater of a dead volcano on top of the mountain. The lake is 2,194 metres above sea level, and more than 200 metres deep. In winter the surface freezes over. It takes about an hour to climb from the end of the road to the top of the mountain. When you arrive you are rewarded not only with the sight of its clear waters, but also by the view of the other sixteen mountain peaks that surround Tianchi. There are many stories told about Tianchi.The most well-known concerns three young women from heaven. They were bathing in Tainchi when a bird flew above them and dropped a small fruit onto the dress of the youngest girl. When she picked up the fruit to smell it, it flew into her mouth. Having swallowed the fruit, the girl became pregnant and later gave birth to a handsome boy. It is said that this boy, who had a great gift for languages and persuasion, is the father of the Manchu people. If you are lucky enough to visit the Lake of Heaven with your loved one, don't forget to drop a coin into the clear blue water to guarantee your love will be as deep and lasting as the lake itself.Look at the title of the story and the picture below. Can you predict what the story is about? Then read the story quickly and see if you were right. TRAPPED BY THE FLOOD â€Å"It's not looking too good, darling. I think you'd better pack a few things and go to your mother's place. And you'd better take Rosie and Monty with you. † Putting down the phone, Sara sighed. Tomorrow was her husband Tony's birthday. She had planned to cook him a nice meal and then surprise him with the new mountain bike she'd bought for him. If she went to her mother's house, Tony wouldn't get his present for days.However, her mother's house was the best place to be right now. Being on higher land, it would be safe from the floods. It had been raining heavily for almost two weeks and the river near Sara and Tony's house was rising higher and higher all the time. Tony and others from the village had spent the last two days putting sandbags along the side of the river to stop it overflowing . Now they feared that their hard work had been useless and soon the whole valley would be flooded. Sara dressed baby James in warm clothes and collected the things she would need for him over the next few days.She put the lead on the dog and went in search of Monty, the cat. It took her a long time, but eventually she found him safe and warm under the covers on her bed. She placed him in his cat basket and took him into the kitchen where James and the dog, Rosie, waited. Just as she was reaching for the car keys, Sara heard a sound like the noise bath water makes when you pull out the plug. She looked at the back door. Water was flowing in underneath. Turning around she saw dirty brown water fountaining out of the drain and filling the sink. Quickly she put James into her backpack and pulled it onto her back.Calling to Rosie, she picked up the cat basket and ran to the front of the house and out into the front garden. The water was already up to her knees. Rosie was swimming beside her. Knowing the water would soon be much deeper, Sara ran to the car and opened the doors. She threw the cat basket onto the roof of the car and pushed Rosie up beside it. Using the car seat as a step she climbed first onto the front of the car and then onto the roof. James, sately attached to her back, made no sound at all. Sara stared down at the water which was rushing past the car. It was already half way up the doors, and still rising.

Singapore Flyer

Introduction Our group’s choice of attraction is the Singapore Flyer (FIG. 1). Endorsed by the Singapore Tourism Board (STB) and opened on 25th April 2008, the Flyer stands at 165m in height and was built at a cost of S$240 million. It is ranked #19 out of 276 attractions in Singapore on TripAdvisor and is one of the attractions that make up the â€Å"See Singapore Pass†. A General Assessment of the Singapore FlyerWith reference to Butler’s Tourism Area Cycle of Evolution theory (1980), the Flyer is likely to be at the development stage (third stage) as it has established itself as a well-known paid tourist attraction with sharp planning and strategies designed to attract tourists. Visitor arrivals in 2010 were 30% higher than in 2009, largely due to the Flyer’s $10 million master plan that included the launch of the Singapore Food Trail and the Journey of Dreams interactive gallery[1]. However, it has also faced much criticism for its perceived lack of au thenticity and dilution of local culture.For example, the Singapore Food Trail (FIG. 2) can be considered a form of constructed authenticity[2] – it has a themed interior design and setting from the past as well as makeshift stalls along the roadside, all of which brings back the nostalgic feel and charm of Singapore in the 1960s. This shows how the Flyer has sought to keep up with â€Å"The Tourist† who demands authenticity and associated feelings of nostalgia for the â€Å"natural past† (GE2218 Lecture 5, 2013) There are multiple reasons to explain why this attraction was opened.Firstly, the Flyer is one of a few vantage points that offer both locals and tourists a 360o panoramic view of the cityscape. Secondly, it was to be a revenue-generating attraction for the government as 50% of visitors were expected to be tourists with S$94 million in tourism receipts generated in its opening year. Third, as the Flyer is similarly styled to the London Eye (London being an Alpha++ city[3]), opening it could be viewed as a political and economic gesture to the rest of the world that not only is Singapore a leading world city, it is also an attractive place for foreign investment.According to Ms Patsy Ong[4], â€Å"the opening of Singapore Flyer herald[s] a new age for tourism in Singapore†¦ the unique and exhilarating top-of-the-world experience makes Singapore Flyer a must-see and compelling visitor destination in Asia. † Fourth, the Flyer provides Singapore with an iconic landmark that can be recognized internationally, more so when set amidst a necklace of attractions such as the iconic Marina Bay Sands Integrated Resort next door.The Flyer serves those who wish to take in Singapore’s cityscape from an aerial view as well as those who want to eat and shop before or after taking the attraction. It tries to cater to a range of age groups, socio-economic back grounds and nationalities. Examples include having student discounts on certain days, family packages, infrastructure that support wheelchair users, multiple restaurants and shops as well as a recreated Rainforest garden (FIG. 3) that provides visitors with a lush tropical feel.However, despite trying to stay inclusive by catering to the mainstream crowd, many still feel the Flyer tickets are too expensive[5] – it is therefore highly likely that people from lower-income groups are priced out and excluded[6]. The Flyer attracts a range of visitors although the majority of people there were tourists[7]. According to one of the staff at XD Experiential Ride, visitors to the Flyer comprise largely of tourist families and couples. Couples normally visit at night while the weekends see mostly families.Generally, the complex was observed to be largely empty on a weekday afternoon (FIG. 4). Times of day as well as weather has a great influence on when people visit – most visitors prefer to view the cityscape at night while bad weather limits maxi mum enjoyment of the ride. Numerous people such as retail and F&B staff, maintenance staff and security staff work at the Flyer with majority of them involved in the security department. SWOT Analysis Chart The SWOT analysis chart (FIG. 5) will be used to evaluate the  Strengths,  Weaknesses,  Opportunities and  Threats involved in the Singapore Flyer.Identification of the Flyer’s SWOTs are essential as they inform later steps in achieving its ultimate objective – to attract more tourists and to increase tourist revenues. Strengths The Singapore Flyer claims the title as the world’s largest observation wheel – it is a landscape of spectacle[8] by virtue of its sheer size and distinction and is also visually effective and stimulating. Its air-conditioned capsules make it suitable for tourists who are unaccustomed to Singapore’s tropical heat.Through branding, the Flyer sets itself apart as a world-class lifestyle destination of choice for vi sitors, offering the best views and fabulous dining[9] all within the same complex (FIG. 6). Joint promotions with retail shops located within the complex are also carried out (FIG. 7). The Flyer is highly accessible by public transport, a necessity as it is likely to be the main mode of transport for tourists. The attraction is directly linked to Promenade MRT station while free shuttle buses operate every half hour to and from City Hall MRT station.Coach bays for tour buses are also available (FIG. 8). The Flyer also capitalizes on its good Chi or fengshui with its Signature Auspicious Trail that â€Å"promises to harness the right Chi or the cohesive flow of position energy that guarantees prosperity, good fortune and longevity. †[10] This makes it more attractive to the Asian tourist market where many remain auspicious and who believe in collecting good fengshui. In addition, the Flyer actively markets itself to a global audience through link-ups with tour agencies, Singa pore Airlines, and schools. WeaknessesThe Flyer lacks originality with some viewing it as a â€Å"copycat version† of the London Eye. â€Å"Staged authenticity† (Edensor, 2009) is evident in the Flyer’s offerings of bite-sized and packaged â€Å"Singaporean† facets – an appropriated artificial â€Å"Food Trail† and â€Å"Rainforest Discovery† – that reduce and dilute the authenticity of Singapore’s culture and identity to an engineered landscape[11] that may not go down well with locals. Locally however, there has been little or no national awareness about the attraction as little publicity and hype is generated apart from special occasions.Many locals also have the mindset that the Flyer is a â€Å"tourist attraction†, hence they subconsciously exclude themselves from participating in this activity. Opportunities With reference to the consumer/social factor, the Flyer should capitalize on Singapore’s growi ng popularity as a tourist destination for visitors from all over the world. This growing popularity could very well be a result of our perceived Orientalism/exoticism[12] (Morgan et al, 2012:245) where tourists view Singapore as the â€Å"Exotic East†[13] (Jandt, 2004:404).Moreover, we appeal directly to the tourist who wish to explore South-East Asia but are turned off by many of the other less-developed S. E. A countries – in this way, Singapore could act as the â€Å"gateway† to these other countries. Through their transit here, it is highly probable that tourists would want to explore Singapore as well, and hence the Flyer could capitalize on this aspect by marketing itself vigorously as a â€Å"must-see destination† for these global tourists.Economically, opportunities for the Flyer will increase as there is currently huge potential for our MICE sector to grow even more, particularly with the opening of the MBS Convention Centre located right beside the Singapore Flyer. As Chandran Nair, general manager of Singex puts it, â€Å"MICE has a strong multiplier effect for the economy. You see major trade shows coming into the countries, and you see hotels, stand contractors, freight forwarders and shops benefit. â€Å"[14] This is directly linked to tourism because as the number of MICE conventions held increase, visitor arrivals numbers will definitely grow together in tandem.As visitors to Singapore increase, they are likely to go sight-seeing and with the Flyer in such close proximity to the MBS Convention Centre, it is hence extremely convenient for visitors to make their way there, thereby boosting visitor arrivals and revenue for the Flyer. Opportunities further arise as the everyday tourist experiences a rise in income and quality of life due to strong domestic growth in their home countries. The Flyer could provide associated services that appeal to these people, thereby capturing a portion of the wealth they are prepared to spend[15].As reported by ICAEW[16], Singapore’s tourism industry is predicted to benefit from strong domestic growth in countries in the region like Indonesia, where newly rich Indonesians are more able to travel abroad and who are prepared to spend top dollar in their destination countries. Threats A threat could be the increasing number of similar attractions around the world. As countries compete for the tourist dollar, it is vital to note if the Flyer has a competitive edge over any of these other attractions.Not only does the Flyer have to fight with similar existing attractions (e. g. Ferris Wheel in Taipei[17] and the Menara Tower in Kuala Lumpur[18]), many similar new attractions have also been planned such as the proposed Dubai Eye, The New York Wheel and the Eye on Malaysia. Another threat is the possibility of being overshadowed by newer buildings that offer the same panoramic view of Singapore such as the Marina Bay Sands SkyPark, Sky on 57 and 1-Altitude. Ano ther related point is that as tourists spend an average of just 3. days in Singapore[19], they might choose to visit the more popular and well-known attractions like Sentosa, Singapore Zoo and the Orchard Road shopping district while giving the Flyer a miss. Additionally, the Flyer is extremely vulnerable to adverse weather conditions (e. g. thunderstorms) in which it has no control over. In 2010, lightning struck the Flyer and caused a malfunction in the air-conditioning system; the attraction had to be closed for two days before it was certified safe to re-open.This shows how attractions that capitalize on offering spectacular scenic views are extremely vulnerable to weather conditions, and further illustrates how tourist attractions are constantly evolving as they seek to adapt to different circumstances every day. Conclusion As the aforementioned analysis has demonstrated, the Singapore Flyer is a tourist site that has ample strengths and opportunities that can be tapped on and further enhanced for the generation of revenue. These however, have to be carefully negotiated with the opportunity costs that may be incurred.One should be cautious therefore that capital maximisation through the presentation of bite-sized touristy images is in fact an inauthentic re-appropriation of the â€Å"Singapore culture†. Such a phenomena, in the name of profit maximisation, threatens authenticity, where models of a real are without origin or reality: a hyperreal that sees the precession of simulacra(http://www. stanford. edu/class/history34q/readings/Baudrillard/Baudrillard_Simulacra. html), and an eventual threat to our identity as Singaporeans as we know it.As consultants for the Singaporean tourism company in pursuit for profits, we therefore identify the strengths and opportunities of the Singapore Flyer. However, we also seek to highlight the weaknesses and threats that may impinge on the very authenticity and character of the Singaporean culture and identity. Appendix FIG. 1 – Singapore Flyer signage [pic] FIG. 2 – Recreated tropical rainforest [pic] FIG. 3 – Singapore Food Trail [pic] (Obtained from: http://www. singaporeflyer. com/wp-content/header-images/food-trail. jpg) FIG. 4 – Flyer on a weekday afternoon [pic] FIG. 5 – SWOT Chart LOCATION |TYPE OF FACTOR | |OF FACTOR | | | |Favourable |Unfavourable | |Internal |Strengths |Weaknesses | |Offerings |Offers spectacular view of cityscape |Lacks originality | | |Air-conditioned capsules |Reduces and dilutes Singapore’s cultural authenticity | | |Easily accessible | | | |Combines F&B, shopping and sightseeing all in one | | | |complex | | |Marketing |Excellent branding strategies |Little/no local awareness of promotional activities | |External |Opportunities |Threats | |Consumer/social |Gateway to rest of Southeast Asia |Tourists bypass Flyer for more popular attractions | | | Vulnerable to weather conditions | |Economic |Rise of the well-heel ed global tourist |Increasing number of similar existing/new attractions | | |Huge growth potential in the MICE sector |globally | | | |Overshadowed by other buildings that offer the same | | | |view | FIG. 6 – â€Å"Play, Shop & Dine† all in one complex [pic] FIG. 7 – Joint promotion held with Nankai, a retail shop located within the Flyer complex [pic] FIG. 8 – Coach bays [pic][pic] ———————– [1] http://www. asiaone. com/News/AsiaOne%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20110407-272181. html 2] An authenticity projected onto toured objects by tourists or tourist producers in terms of their imagery, expectations, preferences, beliefs and powers (Wang, 1999:352) [3] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Global_city [4] Managing director of Adval Brand Group Pte Ltd, the exclusive sales, marketing and ticket distribution agent of the Flyer [5] S$21 for a child; S$33 for an adult (Singapore Flyer, 2013) [6] Supporte d by our survey results where majority of survey respondents regarded themselves as belonging to the middle and upper-middle income strata. [7] Our survey results showed that visitors to the Flyer were mostly overseas tourists who hailed from places like India, England, New Zealand, China and Korea. [8]

Formal Lab Report Format

Formal Lab Report Format A properly written formal lab report in CHEM 123L consists of the following sections: Cover Page ? Give your experiment a good, descriptive title ? Include the date, your name, ID#, TA’s name and partner’s name and section # Introduction and / or Purpose ? Introduce the background material your reader will need to understand the experiment and all parts of your report. ? Summarize the underlying theory of the experiment and any equations you will use. ? Identify the purpose of the experiment; what you are trying to accomplish or prove? Experimental Procedure ? If the procedure in the lab manual was followed exactly, it is sufficient to state the following: â€Å"The experimental procedure used for this experiment was outlined in the CHEM 123L lab manual, Experiment #1. All steps were followed without deviation. â€Å") You must include your lab manual in your reference section if you use this technique. ? If the procedure in the lab manual was not followed exactly, you must explain what was done differently. ? Marks are not assigned for the procedure, but will be deducted if you do not include it in your report. Experimental Observations ? Present all experimental observations; what did you see / hear / feel happening as the experiment was proceeding? ? Enter original observations such as weights, volumes, temperatures etc. with units. ? Tabulate experimental data (ie, present your data in a table) whenever possible, this helps the reader quickly compare your data. Include appropriate table titles, labels and units. ? In some lab reports the observations may be incorporated into the results section. Results & Calculations ? Show one sample calculation to illustrate how each type of calculation was performed. Use appropriate units and significant figures. ? Tabulate calculated results, whenever possible. Tables must have appropriate titles, labels and proper units. ? Refer to Appendix B: Data Analysis, for information on plotting experimental data. Discussion ? Generally describe what was done and what was accomplished in the lab. What concepts or ideas did the experiment prove, show, reinforce, etc ? Compare experimental results with values found in the literature (if any). If your values do not agree with literature values, discuss why this may be. ? Briefly discuss possible sources of observed errors. If your results are erroneous, explain what was done wrong in the experiment that may account for the observed results. (Note that this is not a discussion of every possible error that may or may not have occurred! ) Questions ? Answer all questions given in the lab manual in a separate section within your report, unless you are instructed otherwise. Conclusions ? Restate purpose and/or objectives of the experiment and give conclusions as to whether or not they were achieved. ? State all experimental findings regarding unknowns ? Comments regarding the effectiveness or reliability of experimental methods can be made here as well References ? List any books or articles that were used in writing the lab report (including those used to answer questions) in alphabetical order by author(s) or editor(s) name. Include full reference information for each source. ? Always cite references within the body of your lab report. The preferred citation style for Chem 123L is to use the authors name and date of publication in parentheses, for example: Chem 123L students are typically bright and inquisitive. (Kramer, 1999) ? Once again, marks are generally not assigned for the references, but will be deducted if you do not include them in your report. Clarity and Understanding ? A mark will be assigned for overall clarity and understanding of the experiment. Have you presented your findings in a way that proves you understand what you did and why? ? Marks will be awarded for neatness and organization. Don’t make it difficult for your TA to mark your report!

American language Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

American language - Personal Statement Example Linguistic discrimination thus should constitute hefty defense below the law. Consequently, this will ascertain that nobody feel neglected or biased by the rulings. International law assures security against linguistic inequity in work areas. This exemplifies that persons endure safeguarding when working regardless of origin. Moreover, language discriminations pose as an illegalized act  basing on the information that people should live free from all sorts of torture (Civil Society Platform on Multilingualism 29).  Articulating against language  discrimination amongst persons includes an exceedingly creditable act. However, people necessitate safeguarding even far from working premises. This would ascertain that language discrimination poses as an illegal doing in all places. For instance, this includes application in extensive perspectives like worshipping localities, homes and service centers. Additionally, safeguarding persons against language discrimination entail promotion of ethnicity. This necessitates explanations from the truth that promoting languages involves a rich move towards safeguarding ethnic diversity. Therefore, people should endure protection below the law as regarding their languages as this involves advocating for culture. For instance, immigrant persons should face non-language discrimination in foreign states (Civil Society Platform on Multilingualism 21). Furthermore, language discrimination hinders person’s advancements in the current world, where diversity entails a theme of intense regard (Civil Society Platform on Multilingualism 32). Therefore, law should proliferate its championing in liberating persons from language discriminations in all localities. Diversifying the law’s relevance in every place constitutes total safeguarding for a person’s

The advantages of visiting Barcelona Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The advantages of visiting Barcelona - Essay Example Barcelona has great influence on commerce, arts, science, entertainment, and education. The city is a major tourist destination subject to its rich cultures, architecture, and good climate. With a Barcelona has Mediterranean climate that depicts mild, humid winters and warm, dry summers the city attracts tourist in all seasons. The city hosts over one million visitors every week (Esei International Business School 1). There are great monuments, museums, good people, galleries, and magnificent architecture in Barcelona. The beautiful historic and tourist sites include the old Boqueria market, Picasso and Mirà ³ works, Tibidabo that overlooks Barcelona, La Sagrada Familia, Barceloneta Beach, Frank Gehry's Peche, The Historic Gothic Quarter, and Marina at Villa Olimpica (Williams 1). With 1,629,990 visitors, the FC Barcelona museum is the most popular museum in Barcelona. There is a buzzing nightlife in Barcelona due to the numerous bars and nightclubs, cocktails, and casinos (Williams 1). Moreover, there is better accommodation in the city subject to the five star hotels in Barcelona. With four and a half kilometers of sandy beaches, Barcelona is one of the dominant beach cities in the world (Esei International Business School 1). The unique architecture of the city adopts a grid system. Transport in the city is through biking, taxis, metro bus or by foot (Tourist Barcelona 1). Barcelona has worst drivers and hence many people choose to walk the streets of Barcelona.

HEALTH BEHAVIOR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HEALTH BEHAVIOR - Essay Example Alcohol consumption is one of the most popular health behaviors in the world with majority of people drinking almost daily. Lewis (2005) noted in Australia for instance, people take drinking as part of their meals albeit many drink wine. While not everybody consumes alcohol in large quantities daily, it was noted that many people tend to drink a few bottles after work. In short, people take drinking alcohol as leisure some oblivious of the dangers while other knowing very well the repercussions. Sadly, many of the people who are involved in drinking are very much aware of the risks that accompany such behaviors yet continue. For instance, National Health Service (NHS, n.d.) states that, alcohol affects very crucial parts of the body. Among them is the brain, heart, pancreas, liver and the immune system. In addition, there is likelihood of developing cancer of mouth, esophagus, throat, liver and even breast cancer for women who find pleasure in this habit. Therefore, the dangers associated with alcohol consumption are quite many, and efforts ought to be put with an aim to overcome such habits. Drinkers are normally classified into three; low-risk drinkers, increasing-risk drinkers and high-risk drinkers. For the lower-risk, it is understood that the signs may not be evident presently but in the future, the body will react. Normally, this category of people are thought and said to be safe-drinkers but Turner (2009) states that alcohol consumption can never be safe. On the other hand, increasing risk drinkers tend to drink between three and four units daily, and usually damage many parts of the body. Finally, the higher-risk category of drinkers consumes around eight units, and many times suffer from a number of diseases due to the affected parts. While the writer is very aware of the risks of alcohol consumption, the health behavior is rampant but efforts have been made in the past to overcome it. Unlike the majority of people who

Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marriage - Essay Example Moreover, the arguments against same-sex marriage almost exactly track the arguments against interracial marriage, which shows that the evolution of marriage should go in the same direction – just as interracial marriage is accepted by the majority of people, so should same-sex marriage be. The History of Marriage   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The history of marriage, of course, would be the topic of a much longer discourse, so this section will only review the pertinent aspects of heterosexual marriage which impact the arguments for and against gay marriage.   Fox-Genovese (49) traces the history of marriage, stating that marriage began as a relationship between families, tribes and clans, as opposed to uniting individuals.   Marriage was transformed, however, into a right to enjoy certain benefits and privileges, along with community approval and recognition.   Fox-Genovese (50) begins her analysis of marriage by stating that Adam and Eve were created an d ordered to be fruitful and multiply, which was the basis for this original union.   In the Old Testament, women suffered greatly, as their husbands took concubines and fathered children with many other women.   At that time, marriage was mainly about families and tribes, not about the individuals themselves.   This motivation continued in pre-modern societies, as primitive groups, such as Hebrew tribes, used marriage as a way to strengthen their house.   Marriage was also typically used as a political solidification practice, as ruling families used marriage to strengthen their political rule.   Therefore, for most of millennia, marriage has been a pragmatic institution, not based upon love, but, rather, based upon economics and power consolidation.   This is shown by the pragmatics of marriage in consolidating power, and is also shown by dowries and bride prices, in which the potential husband literally paid for the privilege of marrying his future wife (Fox-Genovese, 53).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout these historical eras, women were subjected to patriarchy.   The man ruled the home, and, at least in the Old Testament cases, was able to take on multiple wives, concubines and lovers without censure.   Fox-Genovese (60) states that this patriarchy was lessened, somewhat, towards the end of the 19th Century, as women gained more equality in and outside the marital unit.   Eventually, marriage evolved from its pragmatic status to one that is more egalitarian and ostensibly based upon love.   Marriage is no longer merely a way to solidify power, or a way to gain economically. It is now considered to be a sacred bond between two people in love. The emphasis is now on personal happiness, not economics, power and social ties (Fox-Genovese, 61).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fox-Genovese (62) makes the case that marriage, historically, has been based upon practical concerns, and these concerns do not nec essarily focus upon what anti-gay marriage advocates insist are at the core of marital unions – the family and procreation.   Marriage has traditionally been based upon economic, social and political concerns, which seem to undermine the arguments against gay marriage. Another sound argument which is based upon an analysis of heterosexual marriage, which profoundly undermines the current bias against

The Industrialization of Europe 1780-1914 Essay

The Industrialization of Europe 1780-1914 - Essay Example Industrialization shares close relation with both economic development and economic growth but the concepts are not the same. Kuznets termed it as the modern economic epoch. The process of economic growth involved the association or interaction of four factors namely population, resources, institutions as well as technology. The process of interaction between the factors determines the outcome of the process but the variation of possible outcomes is infinite. During the process of industrialization in the nineteenth century several factors played many different roles at different times (Henderson, 1969). The era of industrialization brought improvements in the standards of living of the society, new wealth on the hands of the population and a transformation from agricultural productivity to urbanization and upgraded standards of health. Technology consisted of the inventions that contributed in the process of production. Such innovation transformed the way production took place. The inventions of new machines like cotton gin, power loom contributed in production of large quantities. In the era of industrialization there was rapid demand for cotton and the demand surpassed the supply in the market creating the condition for excess demand. The demand could not be served if spinning machines were not invented. Industrialization increased urbanization in the continent. The cities in the nineteenth century became the places of manufacturing. Immigration into the industrial cities took place at a rapid rate as jobs were available in this part of the continent. The urbanization achieved raped rate before the planning process got implemented and therefore few challenges regarding social security aroused. The environmental problems coupled with overcrowding caused the challenges to become more hazardous. Industrialization transformed the social structure. As commerce and industry developed there was development of middle class locally referred as bourgeoisie. During the process of industrialization the middle class gained political power and social respect. Ultimately new elite of social class evolved and they were refereed as wealthy bourgeois. The human labor began to be replaced by machines. The use of steam engine was the benchmark for producing textiles. Commercial revolution, price revolution, and the cottage industry are regarded as the roots of industrialization. The commercial revolution brought about exploration age. The price revolution contributed in stimulating the production process as the producers can now get more money for their goods. There was rise in the capitalism structure as the surplus money began to circulate in the investment ventures. The middle class acted as the leaders in economic revolution. Trading as well as manufacturing brought wealth to the bourgeois (Cameron, 1985). Research objective The objective of the research is to analyze the effects of industrialization in the continent of Europe. It is believed that ind ustrialization brought in improvements in the stands of living of the society and therefore the blessings on industrial revolution helped the continent to advance into one of the developed parts of the world. The time period under consideration for the research is 1780 to 1914. Research questions The research

Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 5

Economics - Essay Example This is known as satisficing. If the firm wants to maximize its profits it will try to equate marginal revenue and marginal cost. Marginal cost refers to the increase in the total costs of a firm caused by increasing its output by one extra unit. From the viewpoint of economists, firms normally produce at a point at which the marginal costs are positive. Marginal revenue refers to the receipt from selling an extra unit of output. On the other hand, when the firms go for satisficing the managers of a firm need to make enough profit in order to satisfy the demands of their shareholders. Satisficing or profit satisficing denotes the managerial behavior that attempts to achieve some level profits. Once the satisfactory level of profits has been achieved, the managers are free to maximize their rewards that can be available from the particular company. All the markets are in equilibrium when the demand and supply are equal. Equilibrium or equilibrium price refers to the price level of a particular commodity at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. Here the price and quantity demanded are having a negative relation. The variables which are negatively related, for example price and quantity demanded, have an inverse relation. Here the price is a determinant and the quantity is determined. An increase in the price leads to a fall in the quantity demanded and vice versa. There are many inversely related variables in economics, for example rate of interest and borrowing, economic growth and balance of payment, unemployment and inflation etc, that is an increase in the rate of interest, an increase in the economic growth and an increase in the unemployment will cause a fall in borrowing, balance of payment and unemployment respectively. The actual market always tends towards the equilibrium price where demand and supply curves cut each other.

Disciplan Plan for Kindergarten Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Disciplan Plan for Kindergarten - Coursework Example No matter how much planning goes into the curriculum, relationship building, and student assessment, it all stands useless if the classroom is inefficiently managed. However, rewards and punishment policy is focused upon the development of a child’s extrinsic motivation but his or her intrinsic motivation is negatively affected especially at the kindergarten level of education. Rewards and punishment power base used by a teacher might help in implementing discipline in the classroom for the short term but since intrinsic motivation is not developing, a seemingly well-behaved child would tend to deviate from his conduct in the absence of the opportunity of rewards. Although this strategy is most effective amongst the primary level of kindergarten level education, the child’s self-development and inherent nature are hampered. Hence one needs to combine this with some other strategies in order to formulate a discipline plan ideally suited for the inherent development of th e child studying in the kindergarten. For instance referent power base demanding the complete involvement of the teacher might be well suited to this level of education system. Hence one or more of such approaches or power system might be implemented. A collaborative strategy might be put into effect where the control lies partly in the hands of the teacher and partly with the students. This is a collaboration of student-directed as well as teacher-directed approach. There are four power bases and three management theories, which need to be selectively chosen from in order to implement a discipline plan for a classroom. The four power bases are referent power, legitimate power, expert power and reward/punishment. The theories are student directed or non-interventionist, teacher-directed or interventionist and collaborative.  Ã‚  

Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis - Essay Example When affected these tissues are covered with a dirty yellow to gray smear. The gingiva is extremely red, swollen, inflamed, and excruciatingly painful. On examination, the patients may present the hallmark of the disease, necrosis and crater-like ulceration of the affected interdental papillae. These irritated tissues will induce salivation, and the offensive exudates can be seen and perceived by halitosis. In some cases, spontaneous hemorrhage is also encountered. This discrete clinical picture makes the feasibility of easy diagnosis by clinical examination alone. However, this simplicity is not always the case, where the disease may be generalized within the oral mucosa, rather than being generalized, and sometimes, acute oral pain is also associated with systemic symptoms of fever and malaise. Quite frequently, involvement of the regional lymph nodes is also seen in the form of painful lymphadenopathy. Generalized disease due to contiguity may involve the other areas of buccal muc osa. When involved, most commonly the oral mucosa opposite the third molar is involved. Although rare, sometimes this encompasses tongue, lips, palate. It has been shown that there is an association between plasma ascorbate deficiency and disease risk. When this clinical presentation happens as a part of necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis, it is better to err on the side of HIV infection and rule it out. In this article, the relevance of the condition to dental practice will be explained and explored based on evidence from current literature (Melnick, S. L., Alvarez, J. O., Navia, J. M., Cogen, R. B., and Roseman, J. M., 1988). Melnick and coworkers investigates the susceptibility of necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis and in doing so they build up their study on the knowledge that impaired immune defense mechanisms and genetic factors play a role in susceptibility of this disease. In the concise literature review, the authors summarize the current literature on this disease. Although oral anaerobic bacteria have been implicated in this disease, the exact role played by them has not been elucidated. The question whether this disease is etiologically related to a genetic basis, is still unanswered, although the authors mention a familial constellation of cases. Many factors such as poverty, stress, and malnutrition have been suggested, but these have not yet been established conclusively. Numerous other associated conditions have been described in the literature, and they are important from the clinical point of view as far as the practice of dentistry is concerned, since they may alert the clinician to take a dequate preventive measures when such patients are encountered. Many such conditions pathologically are related to impaired immune defense, and they are chronic cyclic granulocytopenia, agranulocytosis, cyclic neutropenia, and Down's syndrome. In all these conditions, there is either defective polymorphonuclear leukocyte functioning or secondary neutrophils deficiency. It has been suggested that these deficiencies result from presence of abnormal complement components. These complement defects are genetically controlled, and therefore, it can be inferred that these defects in complement synthesis, C3 and C4 may play some role in pathogenesis of necrotizing ul

Integrating learning styles Essay Example for Free

Integrating learning styles Essay Facilitators use different learning styles such as auditory, kinetic, and visual methods to enhance each student’s ability to grasp material the simplest way possible. Through research, instructors have adapted many instructing methods to tap into each student’s learning style without alienated other strategies necessary for various learners. Auditory strategies may include speeches, tapes, or auditoria tutorials so the students can complete their work as they listen to the facilitator’s instructions thoroughly (Felder and Soloman, p.1). Instructors should emphasize the key words during their speeches to trigger the student’s critical listening skills. The keywords of the speech should be relative to their new material, but it must advise them on how to carry out the motions as well (Family Education, p. 2). As in online tutorials, the student must be able to hear the instructions and place the instructions in action by kinetic learning methods. Kinetic methods can include on-hands learning opportunities such as drawing, playing, or writing. An example of this would be to write out the format of a mathematical equation. The students learn to articulate the mathematical structure of the equation in order to answer the question more thoroughly (Felder and Soloman, p. 2). Instructors can use hands-on applications to break the barrier between the textbooks and the information’s overall objective. For instance, an electrical engineer must use their knowledge in the field in order to work diligently through their coursework. It is very important to give the students a chance to have a complete understanding of what their class material is about through kinetic methods. Visual instructions show students how to replicate the sequence for a given answer (Family Education, p. 1). For example, a student must know the basics of a mathematical equations in a more, in-depth way to capitalize on the verbal (auditory) and kinetic (working out) aspects of the subject matter. Reference Cited Felder, R. M. and Soloman, B. A. Learning Styles and Strategies. North Carolina State University. Retrieved October 25, 2006 from http://www. ncsu. edu/felder-public /ILSdir/styles. htm. â€Å"Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic Learners. † (2006). Family Education. Retrieved October 25, 2006 from http://school. familyeducation. com/intelligence/teaching-methods/38519. html.

Concepts and Definitions of Mental Illness

Concepts and Definitions of Mental Illness INTRODUCTION The conceptualisation and definition of what is meant by the term ‘mental illness’ is not a straight forward task. This is because of two key reasons. Firstly, a given definition of mental illness will be significantly affected by the specific characteristics of the source of the definition. For example, a member of the general public would be likely to provide a definition which is significantly different from a person who worked within the legal profession. The perceptions of the member of the general public are likely to have been influenced by factors such as the media and their experiences involving people who are viewed as being mentally ill. In contrast, the legal profession would be influenced by the guidelines and recommendations set out by law (e.g. the Mental Health Act 1983 and subsequent amendments). The definition used within the health care profession is likely to differ again from these alternative approaches Such differences are likely to exist within th ese categories. For example, the definition used by a Psychiatrist may not be the same as that which is used by a General Practitioner. Therefore, whenever one is discussing ‘what is meant by mental illness’, it is important to note the significant impact which is made by the perspectives and experiences of those providing the definition. For the purposes of the following discussion, the definitions which are employed within the health care industry will be predominantly focussed upon but references will be made to the perceptions of other relevant groups. The second reason why the definition of ‘mental illness’ is not a simple one is because of the wide range of different symptoms, behaviours and personal characteristics which may be perceived as signs of mental illness. A person may be perceived as mentally ill if they claim to hear voices, experience prolonged episodes of depression, are addicted to drugs or even because they are extremely scared of spiders. These wide range of symptoms ensure that it is difficult to derive a definition of mental illness which encompasses all of the relevant aspects and issues. In terms of behaviours, a person who is going through a period of extreme optimism may be viewed as being a very positive person by some and as experiencing a manic episode by others. Therefore, it is difficult to clearly define the boundaries as to when behaviour moves into the realm of being a sign of mental illness. Finally, the personal characteristics of the person being observed are likely to influence whet her or not they are perceived as being mentally ill. For example, a young person who is forgetful may be viewed as simply having a poor memory. However, if an elderly person was to perform the same episodes of memory loss, they may be more likely to be viewed as suffering from the early signs of Alzheimer’s Disease. Therefore, the definition of mental illness is made more difficult by the range of applicable symptoms, the problems associated with clearly defining boundaries and the effect of the personal characteristics of the person being observed. The following review will discuss these relevant issues and highlight the key elements of the debate regarding ‘What is Mental Illness?’ THE CONCEPT OF MENTAL ILLNESS This section will consider the statistical approach to mental illness along with the importance of social desirability. The roles played by cultural and societal factors in determining what is labelled as mental illness will then be discussed. Finally a theoretical definition of what is meant by mental illness will be provided. 2.1 THE STATISTICAL APPROACH TO MENTAL ILLNESS The more traditional approach to mental illness was based on the concept of how rare a given person’s characteristics, thoughts and behaviours were viewed as being. Somebody who is acting very differently and in a way which is rarely seen, had the potential to being perceived as mentally ill. For example, the extreme behaviour and actions performed by Adolf Hitler would lead many to claim that he was ‘insane’ However, This statistical approach to mental illness can be criticised in two ways. Firstly, the extreme behaviours of somebody like Picasso are viewed as talent and ability rather than as being a sign of mental illness. Rarity, it could be argued, is only relevant when it is combined with behaviour which is socially undesirable. The statistical approach can be criticised in a second way. There are certain categories of mental illness which are not that rare. For example, a significant number of people in the world suffer with depression. One could not argue that depression is not a mental illness merely based on the theory that there are too many people suffering with it. Thus the traditional statistical approach was shown to not be a comprehensive and appropriate conceptualisation of mental illness. 2.2 CULTURAL AND SOCIETAL FACTORS IN MENTAL ILLNESS Subsequent approaches to mental illness have focussed on the concept of ‘deviance’ (Maher 1966). This highlights the key role which is played by cultural and societal factors in determining what is labelled as mental illness. The case of homosexuality provides a good demonstration of this point. In previous centuries, performing homosexual acts was seen as a sign of mental illness by both society and the mental health profession. However, over subsequent years homosexuality has become a more accepted form of sexual behaviour. Although some people would still view it as a mental illness, a societal shift appears to have taken place relative to the historical treatment of homosexual people. Heather (1976) argues that there is a moral aspect to mental illness as well as the underlying medical condition. The case of homosexuality outlines this point of view and shows that the concept of mental illness is not a fixed one but rather has the capability to change over time. Szasz (1962) also supported this view and argued that mental illness is as ‘real’ as witch craft was in the past. It is the way in which society perceives mental illness which has a significant impact on what is actually labelled as mental illness. Other cultural aspects have a part to play. Cultural norms regarding a situation are important. For instance, undressing is an acceptable behaviour if one is just about to have a shower However, if one was to undress in the middle of the high street then it would not be seen as acceptable. Similarly there are developmental norms within given cultures. Temper tantrums are expected when a child is around two years of age. However, if the same behaviour was performed by a 30 year old then it is likely that this would be seen as unacceptable and potentially viewed as a sign of mental illness. This section has shown that cultural and societal factors have an important influence on what is seen as mental illness. A given behaviour i n one community may be acceptable but the exact same behaviour in a different community may be seen as a sign of mental illness. 2.3 DEFINING MENTAL ILLNESS Johoda’s (1958) Framework of mental illness will be outlined here as well as the importance of distress and consequences. CATEGORIES OF MENTAL ILLNESS This section of the review will outline three of the more prevalent categories of mental illness. This discussion will enable a more comprehensive understanding of what is meant by mental illness. Within each category, an example of a mental illness will be provided as a further illustration. The first category is Psychosis. A definition of psychosis will be given and the case of Schizophrenia will be discussed as an example. The second broad category to be considered is Substance Abuse.. The case of people being addicted to recreational drugs will be provided as a modern example. The third and final category is Depression. Bipolar Disorder will be discussed as another example of mental illness. For each of these examples, both the causes and different treatments will be briefly outlined. 3.1 PSYCHOSIS The first category of mental illness to be covered in this discussion is Psychosis. The term ‘psychosis’ has been defined as a range of symptoms that can be found within the diagnostic categories of Schizophreniform illness[1] (Gregory 1987). A variety of different experiences can be described as psychotic symptoms. They can be viewed as ‘highly convoluted expressions of everyday experiences (Beck Rector 2000). They include auditory hallucinations (e.g. the patient may hear a voice instructing them to perform certain behaviours), disturbing thoughts (e.g. the patient may become paranoid that they are being targeted by someone) or a distressing inability to distinguish what is ‘reality’. Combinations of these psychotic symptoms are associated with different forms of psychosis, including both Acute and Chronic Schizophrenia. The mental illness which is labelled as ‘Schizophrenia’ will now be outlined in more detail. The symptoms associated with this illness will be outlined along with the different possible causes and treatments. 3.1.1 SCHIZOPHRENIA The term Schizophrenia was first used by Bleuler (1911). It was intended to mean ‘Split Mind’ or ‘Divided Self’. Clare (1976) stated that a person can be said to be suffering from Schizophrenia if they have at least one of the ‘first rank’ symptoms, outlined below, and do not suffer from a diagnosed brain disease. The ‘First Rank’ Schizophrenic symptoms were outlined by Schneider (1959). They are: Passivity experiences and thought disturbances Auditory hallucinations in the third person Primary delusions or false beliefs The potential consequences for a person suffering with Schizophrenia are both serious and wide ranging. One of the most significant problems can be social exclusion. This has the potential to cause great distress on the part of the patient and may lead to a relapse and or increase in their psychotic symptoms. Therefore it is an important issue to consider and one which needs to be carefully addressed by the mental health nurse. 3.1.2 CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA Information regarding the different causes of Schizophrenia will be added here. 3.1.3 TREATMENTS Many different approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia and psychotic symptoms have been taken over the past fifty years. These have ranged from Neuroleptic medication and Electro-Convulsive Therapy through to Social Support and Family Therapy. The 1960s witnessed the introduction of Phenothiazine as a medication for treating psychotic symptoms (Fenton 2000). Subsequent research evaluating a purely drug-BASED approached suggested that it may be somewhat limited. For example, research has revealed that between 25 and 50% of patients ON medication still experience persistent psychotic symptoms (Garety et al 2000). Furthermore, even when the patients strictly adhere to their medication regime, they still can experience difficulties (Hogarty Ulrich 1998). Other research has supported the view that patients suffering from psychotic symptoms who are on medication still experience residual symptoms as well as social disabilities such as having difficulty with interpersonal skills (Sand ford Gournay 1996). Such social disabilities can negatively effect the patient’s ability to socially interact and to form relationships. This in turn may help to reinforce the stereotypes that people have regarding the mentally ill and hence contribute to the stigmatisation which they have to suffer. Other alternative and supplementary approaches to the treatment of psychotic symptoms have been offered. For instance, based upon Social Learning Theory, Social Skills Training was developed. This involves training and re-training the motor and interpersonal skills of the patient. However, evaluations of this approach have suggested that any positive effects were short term and that rather than dealing with the psychotic symptoms Social Skills Training merely allows the patient to disguise them and to avoid talking about them (Bradshaw 1995). It may be the case that such training needs to be provided via the mental health nurse and this could be one way in which they could help a patient who is suffering from Schizophrenia. Other treatments based on a psychodynamic approach have also been tested and evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and efficacy for the treatment of psychotic symptoms. It was found that there was no significant effect (Malmberg Fenton 2002). However, other s imilar research suggested that approaches which emphasise problem-solving seem to be more effective than those which simply focused on analysis (Fenton 2000). Such findings have led people to advocate the psychological management of psychotic symptoms whilst also emphasising the possible role that could be played by the mental health nurse in addressing problems which are not effectively overcome by the treatments which are presently given for Schizophrenia. 3.2 SUBSTANCE ABUSE Another major area of mental illness concerns addiction. It has been included here as it is not generally perceived as being a mental illness by the public although it is included within the DSM-IV classification framework. Humans can become addicted to a wide range of different stimuli from gambling and sexual behaviour through to drugs and alcohol consumption. As a result of the prevalence of such addictions, and the potentially serious consequences for the sufferer, the topic of addiction has attracted a considerable amount of research projects and theories from a variety of different theoretical perspectives. The case of people being addicted to recreational drugs will now be provided as an example which is of particular relevant to the modern debates within this field. 3.2.1 ADDICTION TO RECREATIONAL DRUG USE The system within the brain which is activated by the consumption of water and food, as well as during sexual activity, can also respond to the taking of drugs. This is associated with an increase in the release of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens within the brain. This effect has been seen with amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, PCP, opiates and cannabis. Recreational drugs are primarily taken by individuals because of the feelings of euphoria, alterations in sensory perception or to experience an increase in their perceived mental or physical abilities. The issue of recreational drug use has seen a significant amount of coverage within the UK media over the last decade. Through a combination of the prevalence of recreational drug use, the reporting of drug-related deaths and the Government’s deliberations over the relevant legal considerations, a growing interest in the topic has been facilitated. The Government and researchers in the field are working to gain an understand ing of the drugs which are being used, who is using them, how addictive behaviour can develop and what interventions can be taken in order to ensure the safety of those at risk. Research has been conducted which has attempted to quantify the extent to which recreational drugs are used within the United Kingdom. For instance, Wadsworth et al (2004a) conducted a postal survey which revealed that 12% of the respondents had taken elicit recreational drugs within the last year and 7% had done so within the last month. For respondents under the age of 25, it was found that 34% reported having taken recreational drugs in the last year and 19% in the last month. It appears that these figures are increasing and that they have been increasing for a number of years. Bauman Phongsavan (1999) performed a review of the epidemiology of drug use and found that it had been steadily increasing since 1990. They also note, however, that it is difficult to collect accurate data regarding the true extent of recreational drug use as people may be reluctant to admit using drugs and to report the amount that they usually take. 3.22 CAUSES OF ADDICTION An addiction involves a person having a compulsion to take a given substance or perform a specific behaviour. They also have an inability, or find it very difficult to limit their in-take of the substance or to control their performance of the given behaviour. Explanations for the development of an addiction have been proposed from a number of different theoretical perspectives. Some of the more prominent approaches will now be outlined. The biological approach, often cited as ‘the disease model’, suggests that a person has a pre-disposition to becoming addicted to a specific stimuli. This does not necessarily mean that they will become addicted, just that they are vulnerable to it and that the onset of any addiction may occur more easily or rapidly. The Genetic approach suggests that people may inherit addictions from their parents through their genetic make-up. Therefore, the children of a person who is addicted to a specific stimuli are said to be more vulnerable to becoming addicted to that stimuli than would normally be expected. The Sociological perspective emphasises the role played by societal factors in the development of addictions among its members. For instance, within a society which creates a stressful environment, high levels of conflict and which allows significant advertising of products to which people may become addicted, more people with addictions may exist relative to another less s tressful society with lower levels of conflict and advertising. Other explanations have been offered which are fundamentally based on psychological principles. It is these approaches which are being proposed as most appropriate for understanding recreational drug addiction. This approach is fundamentally based on the assumption that human behaviour is learned. Such learning is said to be shaped by positive and negative reinforcements which are associated with performing the behaviour. A negative reinforcement may come in the form of information regarding recreational drugs. Such information may be provided by family members, a friend, the media or through the education system. Through emphasising the potential health-related consequences of recreational drug use, the likelihood of an individual taking recreational drugs should be reduced. Negative reinforcement could also occur through an individual experiencing or witnessing an unpleasant event regarding drugs and involving themselves or their friends. Positive reinforcement regarding recreational drug taking could also be provided by an individual’s friends. It could also occur through witnessing other people taking recreational drugs and focussing on the positive consequences of such behaviour. Perhaps the most powerful positive reinforcement, however, occurs when an individual takes recreational drugs and experiences positive feelings as a result. These positive feelings are likely to go beyond the actual physical reaction to include potential factors such as the individual’s acceptance into a social group or scene and a significant rise in their reputation. All of these positive reinforcements are likely to combine, to varying degrees, to encourage the individual to repeat the recreational drug taking behaviour in the future. The addiction can begin when they become tolerant to such positive feelings. This psychopharmacological approach suggests that this tolerance takes two forms. Firstly, the individual can become Contingency Tolerant This relates to their behaviour after the stimuli and it is this which they become tolerant of rather than the stimuli itself. Therefore, to continue with the recreational drug-taking example, the individual may become tolerant of the positive feeling experienced when taking a drug and hence they go in search of a larger effect by taking more of the same drug or by experimenting with other substances. The second form of tolerance is Conditioned Tolerance This relates to the environment in which the behaviour is performed. The drug taker may experience a positive response when they walk into a night club or to a friends house where drugs are usually taken. It is suggested that the individual with the addiction can become conditioned to consuming the given substance or performing the specific behaviour when in a given environment or situation. 3.3 MOOD DISORDERS The two major conditions which are included within this category of mental illness are Depression and Bipolar Disorder. They are both amongst the more common forms of mental illness. As an example of this kind of mental illness, the case of Bipolar Disorder will now be outlined in more detail. 3.3.1 BIPOLAR DISORDER Bipolar Disorder is a form of psychotic illness which involves the patient experiencing episodes of mania and depression. The periods of mania may involve the patient being in extremely high spirits and exhibiting high levels of optimism. In contrast, depression may witness the patient feeling very low and even suicidal. These extreme moods will be separated by times in which the patient is in a ‘normal’ mood. This cyclical pattern of moods can become more rapid over time (Goodwin Jamison 1990). A distinction can be drawn between two forms of the disorder. Bipolar Disorder 1 is the classic form in which the patient experiences recurrent episodes of mania and depression. Bipolar Disorder 2 involves milder episodes of hypomania and depression. If the patient is witnessed to go through four or more episodes in a year then they can be categorised as suffering from Rapid Cycling Bipolar Disorder. It has been estimated that around 1% of people who are over the age of 18 can suffer with Bipolar Disorder in any one year (Regier et al 1993). As a result of the prevalence of this illness, combined with the potential for it leading to suicide (Brent et al 1993), research has been conducted in order to gain an understanding of the causes and the most effective treatments for Bipolar Disorder. This field of investigation has attracted theorists and researchers from a psychological and sociological perspective. This move has been facilitated by the findings of research which has demonstrated that the traditional approach of medication may not address all of the relevant issues. For example, Ameen Ram (2001) suggest that only 60% of patients respond to Lithium and other Anti-Convulsion medication. Furthermore, they also suggest that just 40% of sufferers remain without relapse for three years after initial treatment despite adhering to their medication regime. Such statistics have ser ved to highlight the potential role that could be played by people working from a psychological and/or sociological perspective. The following discussion will now consider and critically review these perspectives with reference to the causes and then the treatment of Bipolar Disorder. 3.3.2 CAUSES OF BIPOLAR DISORDER A significant amount of research has been conducted to investigate the underlying causes of Bipolar Disorder. The role played by genetics and biological factors does appear to be a significant one. Research has demonstrated that one identical twin can suffer with Bipolar Disorder where as the other identical twin may not. However, they are significantly more likely to suffer with the illness relative to another sibling (Genetics Workgroup 1998). Therefore genetics seem to have a significant impact but it is not the only potential contributory factor. Other psychological and sociological factors have been offered as possible explanations for the development of Bipolar Disorder. These will now be discussed with reference to three key areas, the individual, their family and environmental factors. The psychological perspective would highlight the potential causal factors which relate to the individual sufferer themselves. Factors such as substance abuse and alcoholism have been linked with Bipolar Disorder (Winokur et al 1996). A number of psychological issues could under-pin such behaviour and these need to be addressed if a comprehensive understanding of Bipolar Disorder is to be gained. For example, the individual may not be equipped with sufficient coping skills or an ability to manage stress which in turn leads to their use of alcohol or drugs which then contributes to their Bipolar Disorder. The psychological perspective emphasises the influence of factors relating to the individual’s characteristics which cause or contribute to their illness. The second key area which relates to the psychosocial perspective is the family. The interactions between family members during a person’s developmental years appears to have a significant impact on the onset of Bipolar Disorder. Research has been conducted which has assessed what sufferers of Bipolar Disorder view as the main causes of their illness. Lish et al (1994) found that sufferers believe that their illness started in their childhood. The way in which parents act towards a child in forming their behavioural patterns is an important consideration. This is of particular importance when the parents themselves suffer with Bipolar Disorder (Grigoroiu-Serbanescu et al 1989). The child will observe the behaviour of their parents and this in turn will play a significant part in developing their behaviour in given situations. The learning of social skills and the interactions which take place within the family are viewed by those from a psychosocial perspective to be an import ant consideration in understanding the causes of Bipolar Disorder. As well as family related issues, general environmental factors are also advocated by the psychosocial perspective as a cause of Bipolar Disorder (Pike Plomin 1996). The social environment in which an individual lives and the events which they experience may contribute to the development of their illness. The social support which a person has when they are first experiencing a manic or depressive mood can significantly impact the course of the mood and potentially facilitate the development of a more serious problem. Furthermore, the general lifestyle of the individual, and the social settings which this puts them in, will be another influencing factor. If they live or work in an environment which facilitates significant high and low periods then this could facilitate the onset of a psychotic symptom. Therefore, if an individual lives in an environment which encourages alcoholism, provides no real social support and incurs significant episodes of highs and lows, then the environment may lead to them suffering with Bipolar Disorder. Thus far the discussion has demonstrated that those coming from a psychosocial perspective would argue that individual, family and environmental factors all have a part to play in causing, and contributing to, Bipolar Disorder. The empirical evidence, however, for such assertions is somewhat limited and hence the argument exists mainly from a theoretical perspective. It is difficult to conduct experiments which control for all of the potentially confounding variables and because of the relevant ethical considerations involved. Research generally focuses on people with Bipolar Disorder and tries to identify the causes of their illness. Having said this, the relevant research which has taken place involving identical twins would lead one to conclude that psychological and sociological factors do merit consideration when assessing the onset of Bipolar Disorder. The remainder of this discussion will now address the treatment of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective. Again the categories of the individual, the family and the environment will be used to structure the discussion. 3.3.3 TREATMENT OF BIPOLAR DISORDER Although Bipolar Disorder is a serious illness, it can be successfully treated (Sachs et al 2000). Due to the fact that the traditional medication-based approaches have significant side-effects (Vainionpaa et al 1999), and because they are not always fully effective, psychosocial treatments have been proposed. These approaches will now be discussed with reference to individual, family and environmental methods as these were the areas addressed in terms of the causes of Bipolar Disorder. Fundamentally based on psychological principles, therapy has been offered as a possible treatment for Bipolar Disorder. For example, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has been used to treat mild episodes of depression and post-manic dysphoria (Leahy Beck 1988). This approach aims to foster an improvement in the patient’s coping skills, self control technique and on their ability to manage stress. Also the patient can be taught useful strategies such as combining the taking of medication with a routine task. In evaluating this approach Satterfield (1999) used an empirical case study to demonstrate that it can enhance the treatment of rapid cycling. Therefore, CBT is a possible approach for treating the individual factors associated with Bipolar Disorder. An alternative individual approach comes from the psychodynamic perspective. It focuses on abandonment fears, repressed rage, manic defences and the need for engagement through the testing of limits. Limited evaluations of this approach have been made. Early research indicated that there are some long term benefits (Scott 1963). However, this research only used a small sample and hence the extent to which these findings can be generalised is questionable. Much of the research in this area involves single case studies (Kestenbaum Kron 1987). Therefore this approach is predominantly supported by theory rather than sound scientific research. Therefore therapy based on a psychological perspective has been advocated as a method by which individual factors can be addressed. Indeed the Expert Consensus Guideline Series (1996) recommended the use of psychotherapy alongside medication so that a more comprehensive treatment programme can be achieved. Conflict within the family can result from the patient’s desire for the situation to ‘go back to normal’ after an episode, their dependency on a family member for medication and because the family become concerned at the first signs of anger or sadness. Such conflicts can be addressed with therapeutic programmes like that which is proposed by Miklowitz Goldstein (1990). Family Focussed Therapy (FFT) involves assessing and educating the family as well as providing training in communication and problem-solving skills. Evaluations of this approach for treating Bipolar Disorder have shown that it significantly reduces relapse rates whilst improving communication (Miklowitz et al 2000). A key element of approaches within this field is education. Information and hence improved knowledge can help to enhance the patient’s illness management skills. Spouses, other family members and care-givers all need to be involved within this process. Honig et al (1997) found t hat a psycho-educational family approach can reduce relapse rates, increase social support and significantly improve a family’s expression of their emotions. Therefore Family Therapy can be used to help address some of the causes of manic and depressive episodes whilst also improving the family’s ability to cope with them if and when they do occur. The third and final area of treatments of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective concerns environmental factors. By manipulating the environment, it should be possible to both reduce the number of manic or depressive episodes whilst also reducing the negative consequences of them should they happen. For example, Frank et al (2000) proposed Social Rhythms Training. This aims to stabilise a patient’s social rhythms, such as sleeping patterns, and their patterns of behaviour. It also aims to identify the factors which disrupt a person’s social rhythms. Similarly, Wehr et al (1998) advocates the creation of an environment which facilitates regular and healthy sleepi